MOHAMMED ASHIB. M T
Second Year, M A History
Department of History, School of Social Science
and International Studies
Pondicherry University
Abstract:
The
major focus of the study is on the attempt to analyze the maritime trading
activities of the Tamil Muslim merchants and the connected political background
with them between the time of 1300 and 1800 A.D. The Muslim trading tradition
started in the early time. So here is also an attempt for identifying the
maritime activities of the early Muslim traders of the Coromandel Coast. The
early maritime activities of the Coromandel Muslim traders were closely linked
with the spread of Islam and Muslim settlements. The maritime trading operations
of the Tamil Muslim merchants with south east Asian ports, Ceylon and Malabar
thrived till about the 17th century, the 18th century witnessed a
decline in their fortunes due to "monopolistic tendencies" of the
European trading companies and finally the by the middle of the 19th century,
the trading activities of the Tamil Muslim merchants in the coastal areas almost
"collapsed"… From some sources, some Indian Muslims largely stood
inside the politics and involved in it. They used the political influences for
their commercial operations, like the Golkonda Muslims who combined and
connected commercial operations with political influence. So, here is an
outlined analyze about the connection between the Coromandel Muslims and the
political influences.
Keywords: Coromandel Coast, Muslim Trade,
Commeercial Trade, Indian Ocean, Maritime Trade, Political Background,
Political Influence, Tamil Muslims, Nayakdoms, Sethupathi, Portuguese Trade.
Introduction
The land
division of the coastal region according to Tamil tradition is called, Neithal.
An old Tamil poem describes the occupation and activities of the people of
Neithal as follows: boating, chank and pearl fishing, swimming, searching for
marine products, fishing, guiding about the rocks under the sea and the sea
currents, selling fish, manufacture of salt, predicting astronomical data and
forecasting weather conditions, to sail in ships and undertaking voyages to
other countries for trade[1].
For, the upper Hindu caste, crossing the sea was prohibited by custom.
Therefore generally the upper caste Hindus did not take up maritime activities
involving seafaring. During the middle ages a sizable population of the coastal
region was Islamized and they engaged in all of these maritime activities
particularly the Marakkayars and Labbais. Islam took root in the Tamil country
well before the waves of invasion from Central Asia which gave rise to the
mediaeval Muslim sultanates of north India[2].
The maritime activities of the early Muslim
traders of the Coromandel Coast
The early
maritime activities of the Coromandel Muslim traders were closely linked with
the spread of Islam and Muslim settlements. There were powerful incentives for
the Muslims to pursue commercial activities. Malabar was a vital link in Muslim
trade in the ocean. The Chola sea power was a serious obstruction in the
eleventh century to the growth of Muslim influence, because Cholas possessed a
strong navy, which controlled the Coromandel coast of south eastern India and
the Malabar coast of south western India[3].
One of the first important measures taken by Chola Raja Raja I towards the end
of the tenth century A.D. was to secure the Malabar Coast in an engagement at
Kandalurchalai and to conquer the Laccadives and Maldives islands. This was
intended to curb the Arab influence in Indian Ocean trade[4].
After the decline of the Chola power in the twelfth century the Muslim
influence increased and they enjoyed a major role in the sea-borne trade of the
region. The Coromandel ports became the favored settlements of the Muslim
traders. Kayal was the principal port in the thirteenth century where Muslims
were the principal traders. It was also the chief port for trade with Ceylon,
Malacca and the Persian Gulf. Kilakkarai, Devipattanam, Tondi and Nagapattanam
also became busy ports and important Muslim centers of trade. These maritime
towns played a crucial economic role in the pre-colonial Coromandel Coast. By
the early fourteenth century, the armies of the Pandya rulers were supplied
with west Asian horses, shipped in by the Muslim traders to Kayal,
Periapattanam and Kilakkarai from the great international entré - ports of the Persian
Gulf.
The Gujarati and Tamil Muslim traders in
Coromandel Coast
The Guajarati
Muslims handled much of the trade to Aden, Malacca, Sumatra and ports in the
Bay of Bengal. Around the same time, Tamil Muslim traders played an influential
role in the Southeast Asian trade though not perhaps to the same extent as the
Gujarati Muslim traders. Some historians says that details are unfortunately
not available but the dominance of Tamil Muslims is clear from the evidence we
have in the Malay annals regarding the affluence and political influence
enjoyed by the Tamil Muslims in the Kingdoms of Malacca, Java, in the fifteenth
century and the significant role they played in the trade of the Malay world[5].
The Gujarati Muslim ships might have freighted for the Coromandel Muslims, when
they touched the coast.
The political outline of Mainland India and the
Tamil Muslims
At that
time, the merchants were generally organized in powerful guilds and
corporations which often transcended political divisions and were therefore not
much affected by the wars and revolutions going on about them[6].
The Pandian Empire, which was at its zenith in the fourteenth century fell into
disorder due to the civil wars and lost its imperial hold to the Muslim power
of the north and Madurai, was subjected to Muslim rule for over 55 years.
Madurai was annexed to the empire of Delhi during the reign of Sultan
Ghiyasu-d-din Tughluq by about 1323 A.D.[7]
and Jalaluddin Ahsan Sha was appointed as the Kotwal of Madurai, but he
proclaimed his independence in 1933. Then time, the whole of Coromandel region
was under the sway of the Muslims. At the same time, the rule of the Sultans of
Madurai was full of internal clashes and slugfest prevailed everywhere, and the
Vijayanagar kings lost no opportunity to attack the Sultanate. Therefore,
Kumarakampana, the commander of Vijayanagar conquered Madurai in 1370 A. D. and
the Muslim rule was completely outed by 1378 A. D.
The Southern
part of Vijayagar and Nayakdoms
From
that time, the southern part of the Vijayanagar empire at the beginning of the
sixteenth century was reorganized into separate provinces known as Nayakdoms
with their headquarters at Madurai, Thanjavur and Ginjee, and the
administration of these provinces was entrusted to Viceroys which known as
Nayaks. This Nayakara System was a military feudalism with a quasi-independent
status[8]
and they assumed autonomous power when the Vijayanagar power was waning.
Further, the Nayakdoms had their own hierarchy of feudatories, the Polygars or Palayakkarar[9],
the local chieftains with traditional influence. When the old Pndian rule
break-up, the Muslim onslaught and civil wars had devastated the country and
chaos prevailed everywhere, but the Nayakas with the help of the Polygars
reorganized the administration and restored law and order. But the Nayakas were
fighting themselves, inviting Deccani Muslim powers, the Marathas and the
Europeans into the politics of the Coromandel region. At that time was, on
Indian Ocean, the Europeans, the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French, the Danes
and the English were claiming supremacy over it and crossed swords in their
attempt to get their claims established. Then the European companies for trade
and commerce interfered in the internal affairs of the native territories and
the native rulers fell prey to the foreign powers that ultimately resulted in
their extinction.
The
Nayakdom of Ginjee, the northern most part of the Coromandel region, asserted
independence by 1614 and other Nayaks of Madurai and Mysore encroached on its
territories. The Sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda raided Ginjee alternately.
Golkonda annexed its territories including the port of Pulicat and Madras and
after, took over the remaining ports including the port Devanampattanm, Porto
Novo and Pondicherry. The English established their factories in this territory
with the consent of the Nayak and Muslim rulers. The Marathas captured Ginjee
in 1678 and it fell the Mugahals in 1698 and later became a part of the Arcot
subedari. At the dawn of the eighteenth century the cresent flag began to
flutter from the portals of the Caarnatic. The Nawabi system of Carnati was
born with its headquarters at Arcot under the leadership of Zulfikar Khan, the
commander of Aurangazeb. So, Arcot emerged as an independent power in the
second quarter of the eighteenth century and Anwaruddin became the chief of the
Carnatic.
The
Nayakdom of Madurai was founded in 1529, and was divided into many Palayams
each under the charge of a Polygar named as Palayakkarar. The Madurai Nayakdom
included the present districts of Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Thirunalveli, Thiruchirappalli,
Coimbatore, Salem and a portion of Travencore[10].
The long coastline of the Madurai Nayakdom was the scene of intense trading
activities by the European Companies especially The Portuguese and Dutch were
expanding their trade in the coastal region, that led the control of the
affairs of the coast slipped into the hands of these foreign powers and the
Nayaks had no interest in overseas trade. But the export and import trade
contributed much to the economic development of the region[11].
The invasions from Mysore and Bijapur were a challenge to Madurai. Madurai’s
interference in the politics of the Tanjavur Nayakdom invited a new powerful
power, the Marathas into southern politics and later resulted in the
establishment of Maratha rule in Tanjavur, and moreover, the native feudal
Polygars grew independent and the Nayak could not exercise authority over them.
The disintegrating Madurai Nayakdom was taken over by Chanda Sahib in 1736 and
thus almost eclipsed out from the political arena[12].
The
joint venture of Sethupathi with local Muslim traders in trading activities
The rule
of the Sethupathis[13]
was initiated in Ramanathapuram in 1604 by the Madurai Nayak. The Sethupathis
drifted from their allegiance to their sovereign and asserted independence in
1702[14].
Ramanathapuram sprang up as an important state on the ruins of the Madurai
Nayakdom. The English took over Ramanathapuram territory in 1795, and a portion
of it was ceded to Sasivarna Thevar and the state of Sivaganga was born. The
Sethupatis laid emphasis on the maritime commerce in their territory and the
Pamban canal was under their control. A good part of the pearl and chank fisheries
were also on their coast. The Sethupathis encouraged the Dutch, the English,
the French and Danes to trade in their coast and thus they maintained an open
market in their ports. The Major thing which the Sethupahis did, they extended
their patronage to the native traders also and that led to the Muslim influence
on the maritime trade system among the Europeans. So, the Muslims created new
settlements in their ports. Further, the Sethupathis entered into joint venture
with the local Muslim traders in trading activities to Ceylon in the south
part, Malabar on the west and Bengal on the north, of the Coromandel region[15].
Between
the time of 1532 and 1798, the Nayakdom of Thanjavur was witnessed some
capturing hands. Among them Bijapur Sultan through their Maratha general Ekoji
who ensconced himself on throne of Thanjavur and founded the Maratha rule in
1678 replacing the Nayak rule, the Sethupathis and the Thondaimans of nearby
Pudukkottai were also attacked Thanjavur and the tranquility of Thanjavur was
disturbed many times, and finally, Thanjavur was annexed by the English in
1798.
Mughal
imperialism: Navabi rule of Arcot and the political disruption
In 1736,
the rulers of the Tamil country bowed to the Mughal imperialism. The Nayakdoms
became their tributary states. The southern part of the Mughal territory which
known as Carnatic was inaugurated with Arcot as its headquarters. The first
Nawab Zulfikar Khan established his authority in the Carnatic. But the Nawabs
of Arcot could not keep the country intact due to the political and other
factors, and even after the decline of the Nayaks, the local powerful Polygars
took the bull by the horns defied the authority of the Nawab and consequently
the Carnatic region became a scene of incessant intrigues and conflicts. This
situation influence the shipping and the trading settlements and on its smooth
continuum.
These
political disruptions in the southern region paved the way for the Europeans to
enter into the Coromandel politics. The French and the English who had already
succeeded in establishing their hold in some parts of the Coromandel started
fishing in troubled waters supporting the rival groups in Arcot and Hyderabad
to gain mastery over the situation. The Carnatic wars that ensued as a result
of such discord and dissentions were favorable to the English. With the
characteristic policy of divide and rule and naval supremacy, the English
annihilated all their rivals one by one and emerged triumphant ultimately[16].
Mohamed Ali who espoused the cause of the English was confirmed in the
Nawabship in 1754.
Trading invasion of Portuguese and the impact
on the Tamil Muslim trade
When
Vasco da Gama returned from his remarkable pioneer voyage to India the success
of the expedition so completely justified the venture that in spite of the
great explorer’s serious trouble with the Muslim sea traders[17].
It was at this stage that the position of Muslims was seriously affected by the
intrusion of the Portuguese in Indian waters. The Muslims were subordinated and
ruthlessly attacked. Eventually Muslim trade began to decline. The effects of
the Portuguese presence were deeper along the Malabar Coast than in the
Coromandel. Hence Muslims of the Coromandel were able to continue their trade
ventures with the Southeast Asian countries. The Portuguese appeared in Malacca
waters as early in 1510 as the rivals of the Tamil Muslims in trade and
politics. The Portuguese were hostile to the Muslims where ever they found
them, in their homeland as well as in the far off lands where they traded. The
Tamil Muslims persuaded the Sultan of Malacca to take stringent action against
the Portuguese. However Malacca was captured by the Portuguese in 1511 under
Alfonso de Albuquerque[18]
and the Sultan escaped to the island of Bentang in the straits of Singapore.
Thereafter the Tamil Muslim traders avoided Malacca and transferred their trade
interest to Brunei, Johore, Perak, Ache and other trade emporia in Southeast
Asia, which became new centers of Islam and they became the allies of the
rulers of the respective countries. It’s caused to the isolation of Portuguese
in Malacca[19].
The
connection between Tamil Muslim Traders and Political influence
In this
political background the Coromandel Tamil Muslims were in a peculiar situation.
From the available sources right from the rise of Islam in the Coromandel, the
Tamil Muslims were not participants in political activities at more. But, at
the same time, they took a leading part in long distance commercial trade,
coastal trade and other maritime and economic activities without any ambition
for political prominence. However they enjoyed the concessions and goodwill of
the ruling houses in view of the profit the rulers derived from the trade
contacts monitored by the Muslims and It’s cleared by the example of the
Sethupahi’s venture to contact with the Muslim traders. The Muslims had no
direct access to political or military power in the kingdoms of the region.
They were, passive spectators of all the political disturbances and whenever
they were not able to bear the political onslaughts they simply migrated to
territories which favorable to their commercial activities and to other
settlements.
The much
- written Muslim influence in the Pandya court in the 13th and 14th Centuries
was mostly on the commercial front and not political ways. Wassaf speaks about
the prominence of one Taqiuddin Abdul Rahman, the agent of Jamaluddin, the
ruler of Kis (in Arabia). In the Pandya court, Taqiyuddin is said to have been
the Wazir (Minister) of Ma’bar, who was succeeded by Sirajuddin, his son and
his grandson Nizammuddin in succession in the same position[20].
It must be remembered that these were Arabs by descent (not native Muslim
people of the Coromandel). The position of Wazir or minister ascribed to these
Arabs is not confirmed by any Indian source though it is quite likely from the important
positions they occupied that they excercised considerable influence in the Pandian
court, of course, because of their intimate connections with seaborne trade[21].
The
Sultans of Madurai who ruled the Coromandel region for about 55 years (1323 -
1378 A.D.) were military chiefs from the courts of the Delhi Sultanate. Even
the local commanders were of Delhi descent and their supporters. The native
Muslims might have been included in military service here and there. From the
writings of Ibn Batuta (1304 - 1369 A.D.), we are able to understand that there
were no native Muslims occupying higher political position. So it is inferred
that the Muslims were among the citizens of the lot under the Madurai
Sultanate. Even during the occupation of the territories of the Coromandel by
the Deccani Sultanates, the position of the native Muslims was the same as
above that was only as the commercial traders and were not interfere in the
political disruptions on that time. Further the Deccani sultans encouraged
their own people of the Telugu country to settle in the hinterland of the
Coromandel for helping their trading activities. During the period of our study
the Nawabs of Arcot were actually the rulers of the Coromandel region but the
native Muslims did not attain any special significant uplift under their
protection and any other political assistance for their trading system.
Further, the Nawabs or his nobles were not very keen about developing maritime
trade in the coast and thereby help the traditional Tamil Muslims. Thus,
inspite of many centuries of Islamic political domination, we do not find the
name of a Muslim chieftain or a native commander in the status of a Palayakkar
in the entire Coromandel region. The Hindus continued their supremacy in
political and economic spheres due to their numerical strength and Islamic rule
did not deter them from becoming opulent and influential.
The only
commercial magnet with political influence, in the Coromandel, in the history
of the Muslims of the region, was Periathambi Marakkayar of Kilakkarai and we
do not find any other Muslim of this status. It is significant that though the
strongest ports of Muslim commerce were on the Thanjavur coast and just north
of it they never grew to any political status in those territories.
The
colonial powers, the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English who obtained
political powers in the Coromandel territory were unfriendly to the commercial
activities of the natives particularly the Muslim community. The native rulers
forgot to protect the rights of their own subjects who were in maritime trading
activities, paving the way for European expansion. The Coromandel Muslim communities
adjusted themselves to the changed situations and reallocated their economic
activities and were not very serious about acquiring any political importance.
By accident or deliberate preference they chose to be isolated from other
groups of the society with regard to political activities.
Conclusion
From any
sources, we can understand that the Coromandel Tamil Muslims largely stood
outside the politics unlike the Golkonda Muslims who combined and connected
commercial operations with political influence. This is mainly because the
Coromandel Tamil Muslims had no ethnic or kinship connection with any of the
ruling houses of the peninsular India. But they had developed some political
connections away from the homeland in the terminal points of trade in countries
like Kedah, Perak, Johore and Ache. In the homeland the only ruling house to
which they were close was that of the Sethupathis of Ramanathapuram. It was
only from here that they moved from commercial managers to the Sethupathis to
holding administrative positions and renters in the kingdom. Thus in the
overall political background, the Tamil Muslims were a neglected force
politically in the Coromandel region and there is no little connection between
political activities and their commercial trading system.
[1]
- Mohammad, Dr. Raja, Maritime History of the Coromandel Muslims: A Socio –
Historical Study on the Tamil Muslims 1750 – 1900, Published by Director of
Museums, Government Museum – Chennai - 2004, pp. 147
[2]
- Bayly, Susan, Saints, Goddesses and Kings – Muslims and Christians in South
Indian Society 1700 – 1900 (South Asian Studies - 43), Cambridge University
Press – 2003, 73
[3]
- Kearney, Milo, the Indian Ocean in World History, London – 2004, p. 71
[4]
- Raja Mohammad - 2004, pp. 149
[5]
- Khan, Quadir Hussain, South Indian Mussalamans, (1910 – Madras), p. 59
[6]
- Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, A Histoy of South India – From Prehistoric Times to
the Fall of Vijayanagar, Fourth Edition, Oxford University Press – 2010, p. 300
[7]
- Husaini, S. A. Q, The History of the Pandya Country, (1962 – Karaikudi), pp.
74 - 75
[8]
- Iyar, R. Sathianatha, History of the Nayaks of Madurai, (Oxford – 1924), P
65.
[9]
- Palayakkarar was the head of Palayam, a fortified district or military camp
devised by the general of the Madurai Kingdom. Some historians say that the
Palayakkarar system might have originated from the Kakatiya dynasty's model by
Prataparudra, who similarly divided his kingdom among 77 Padmanayakas.
[10]
- Raja Mohammad - 2004, pp. 49 – 50.
[11]
- Ibid, pp. 50
[12]
- Rajayyan, K, A History of Madurai (1736 - 1801), (Madurai – 1974), pp. 68 –
71 (Hereafter Rajayyan Madurai).
[13]
- The Sethupathis (the guardian of the Isthmus of Rameswaram or the protector
of the Bridge) were the rulers of the Ramnad and Sivaganga regions during the
beginning of the 17th century. The rulers of Ramnad and Sivaganga region of
early l7th Century were called Sethupathis. The Nayak ruler Muthukrishnappa
Nayak appointed Sadaikkathever in 1605 as protector and guardian of the
pilgrims to Sethusamudram and Rameswaram. The protector of Sethusamudram was
called as Sethupathy. Sadaikkathevar was a loyal subordinate of the Nayaks.
[14]
- It was under the seventh ruler of Ramnad Kizhavan Sethupathi (1671 AD to 1710
AD) or Kilvan Sethupati.
[15]
- TNA Madurai District Records, Vol. 1178, pp. 470 - 472
[16]
- Subramaniyan, P, Social History of the Tamils 1707 – 1947, (New Delhi -
1996), pp. 6 - 7
[17]
- Ballard, Admiral G.A, Rulers of the Indian Ocean, New Delhi – 1998, p. 39
[18]
- Mathew, K. S, Portuguese Trade with India in the Sixteenth Century, New Delhi
– 1983, p. 60
[19]
- Toussaint, Auguste, History of the Indian Ocean, Tr. June Guicharnaud, London
– 1947, p. 111
[20]
- Elliot, H.M and Dowson, John, (Ed.) The History of India as Told by Her own
Historians (London - 1921), III p. 242 – 243.
